Exploring the intersection of health and human rights is crucial for shaping a world where equitable access to healthcare is a reality for all. This comprehensive analysis delves into the multifaceted relationship between health and human rights, examining how they are defined and how they intersect in practical and educational contexts. As global challenges persist, understanding the key issues affecting health and human rights on an international scale, including access to healthcare and the pursuit of health equity, becomes increasingly important. Moreover, the article highlights the pressing impact of climate change on health and human rights policies and how geographical disparities create varied experiences of these fundamental principles across regions. Lastly, it addresses the vital aspect of mental health within the sphere of human rights, acknowledging the challenges in safeguarding these rights universally.
Understanding Health and Human Rights
Exploring the intersection of health and human rights offers a comprehensive framework for ensuring the well-being and dignity of individuals. It fosters an environment where people can lead healthy lives in the presence of fair governance, freedom, and equality. By understanding and respecting these rights, societies can create health policies that not only prevent disease but also empower communities and promote social justice.
Health and Human Rights Definition
Health and Human Rights refer to a globally recognised concept that intertwines the practice of health and the legal, ethical, and moral aspects of human rights. It acknowledges health as a fundamental human right inclusive of the underlying determinants such as food, housing, and clean environments.
The concept of health and human rights emerged from the understanding that promoting and protecting health is inseparable from the broader perspective of upholding human rights. Health is seen not just as the absence of disease or infirmity but as a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, as stated by the World Health Organization (WHO).
Relationship Between Health and Human Rights
The relationship between health and human rights is bidirectional; the achievement of the highest attainable standard of health ('the right to health') is essential to the enjoyment of all human rights, and the presence of human rights advances the physical, mental, and social well-being of individuals and communities. This dynamic interaction is governed by principles such as non-discrimination, participation, and accountability.
In assessing this relationship, consider how the right to health influences the realisation of other rights, like the rights to food, water, education, work, and the benefits of scientific progress. Conversely, violations of human rights can have profound negative impacts on health outcomes. For instance, discrimination and exclusion often lead to mental health issues and hinder access to healthcare services.
For example, providing access to clean water not only prevents waterborne diseases but also upholds the human right to a standard of living adequate for health and well-being. Conversely, when people are denied their rights to assemble and share information, it can impede public health efforts, as was seen in the suppression of information during the early stages of the COVID-19 outbreak.
Moreover, health policies that align with human rights standards tend to be more effective and equitable. Organisations such as the United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) argue that a human rights-based approach to health can address stigma, discrimination, and inequality that drive health disparities and disease outbreaks. By integrating human rights laws and principles into health strategies, there is potential to create more inclusive and sustainable health systems.
Health and Human Rights Education
Education in health and human rights is crucial for developing critical awareness among health professionals, policy-makers, and the public about the importance of rights-based approaches to health. Through educational programmes and training, individuals can learn how health and human rights are interconnected and the role they can play in advocating for both.
Curricula in this field typically include topics on ethical, legal, and social implications of health care, along with international human rights frameworks and mechanisms. They also encompass practical skills to apply human rights principles in the design, implementation, and evaluation of health policies and programmes.
An in-depth study might involve analyzing case studies where health and human rights have intersected, such as in the response to pandemics, access to reproductive rights, or the treatment of mental health issues in prison systems. Such educative experiences aim not merely to inform but to empower and motivate individuals to actively promote and respect health and human rights in their professional and personal lives.
Educators may use a variety of teaching methods, including interactive workshops, role-playing, and collaborative projects. Students are encouraged to engage in critical thinking and dialogue around current health issues and human rights violations. They may explore questions like how to balance public health priorities with individual rights or how to address systemic inequalities that affect health outcomes.
Did you know that human rights education is itself a right, recognised in international agreements such as the United Nations Declaration on Human Rights Education and Training?
Global Health and Human Rights
Global health and human rights are inextricably linked, with each area influencing the other profoundly. Addressing global health issues is not just a matter of scientific and medical concern; it is also a question of ensuring that everyone, irrespective of their socioeconomic status, has access to the health care they need and are treated with dignity. Improving global health outcomes goes hand in hand with respecting, protecting, and fulfilling human rights across all nations.
Key Challenges in Global Health and Human Rights
The intersection of global health and human rights presents several key challenges, many of which are heightened by disparities in resources, social inequalities, and legal frameworks that vary vastly across borders. These issues are complex and multifaceted, often requiring coordinated action from governmental, non-governmental, and international bodies to address effectively. Ensuring everyone has the opportunity to live a healthy life is not only a moral imperative but also a legal one under international human rights law.
The challenges range from providing adequate healthcare services, addressing the social determinants of health, combating discrimination and inequality, to navigating the challenges posed by globalisation and cross-border health threats. In addition, climate change, conflict, and mass migration continue to exacerbate health inequalities and create new human rights concerns. The key to addressing these challenges lies in recognising the interdependence of health and human rights and striving for policy coherence in these domains.
Access to Healthcare on a Global Scale
Access to healthcare is a fundamental aspect of human rights and a critical component of global health. However, across the globe, many individuals and communities face barriers in accessing quality health services. Disparities exist not just across countries but also within them, often influenced by factors such as economic status, geographic location, ethnicity, gender, and age.
Key obstacles include shortages of healthcare workers, lack of infrastructure, financial constraints, and cultural or linguistic differences that may hinder effective communication between patients and healthcare providers. In many regions, essential medicines and life-saving interventions are not readily available or are unaffordable for the majority of the population. Political instability and conflict can also disrupt healthcare delivery systems, leading to increased vulnerability of populations.
To understand these disparities, it is useful to examine the healthcare access index, which measures various factors, including the availability of medical personnel, infrastructure, affordability, and the quality of services provided. This index sheds light on the significant work still needed to achieve universal health coverage — a target of Sustainable Development Goal 3.
Moreover, it is crucial to acknowledge that access to quality healthcare must move beyond physical reach to services; it should also encompass the 'right to health' principles like acceptability, appropriate standard, and non-discrimination, as stated in international human rights treaties.
Remember, access to healthcare does not only mean the presence of health facilities; it must also include equitable distribution of resources and culturally appropriate services.
Health Equity and Social Justice Worldwide
Health equity and social justice worldwide are vital for the advancement of global health and human rights. Health equity implies that everyone has a fair and just opportunity to be as healthy as possible, requiring the removal of obstacles like poverty, discrimination, and their consequences, including powerlessness and lack of access to good jobs with fair pay, quality education and housing, safe environments, and healthcare.
The pursuit of health equity involves addressing unequal social conditions and structures that disproportionately affect marginalised groups. Social justice is interwoven with this pursuit, recognising the equal worth of all individuals and striving for societal changes that reduce inequalities.
| Social Determinant | Impact on Health Equity |
| Income and Social Status | Higher income and social status often lead to better health outcomes. |
| Education | Greater education typically enables better health choices and opportunities. |
| Physical Environment | Access to clean water, air, and safe housing plays a crucial role in health. |
| Social Support Networks | Strong community ties can lead to improved mental and physical health. |
Achieving global health equity also demands international cooperation, recognising that health issues such as pandemics and the effects of climate change know no borders and can disproportionately impact less resourced nations. Efforts to overcome these challenges are underpinned by principles such as the right to non-discrimination, the equitable distribution of healthcare resources, and the participation of affected communities in decision-making processes.
An example of health inequity can be seen in the differential impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. Lower-income countries and marginalised populations within wealthier nations faced various disadvantages, from limited access to healthcare services and information to the inability to practice social distancing due to job constraints or living conditions.
Initiatives and Organisations Supporting Global Health and Human Rights
There are numerous initiatives and organisations dedicated to promoting global health and human rights. These include international agencies, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and civil society groups working to address the myriad of challenges at the intersection of these two fields. Their actions range from advocacy and policy development to providing direct services and building capacity in local health systems.
Internationally, the World Health Organization (WHO) leads in establishing global health standards and guidelines. The United Nations (UN) system, through various agencies such as UNICEF and UNAIDS, plays a pivotal role in promoting health as a human right. Other significant contributors include global partnerships and funds, such as the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance, and the World Bank's health programs.
At the civic level, organisations like Doctors Without Borders/Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) and Partners In Health (PIH) provide crucial healthcare services, especially in areas affected by conflict or disaster. Human rights-based organisations, such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, monitor and report violations that negatively impact health outcomes.
Critically, these organisations support awareness and education around health and human rights topics through research, training programs, and public campaigns. Collaborative efforts are often geared towards building resilient health systems, improving access to medicines, and ensuring that global health laws reflect human rights principles.
One notable initiative is the Right to Health campaign, which advocates for the practical application of the right to health in local and national contexts. Drawing on international law and standards, this type of campaign pushes for legislative reforms and policy changes. They often pilot community-based programs that demonstrate how health services can be made more accessible, particularly to those most in need. The success of such initiatives hinges on their ability to mobilise a range of stakeholders, including community leaders, health professionals, policy-makers, and international institutions, driving systemic change from the grassroots level to global policy forums.
The Impact of Climate Change on Health and Human Rights
Climate change poses one of the most significant threats to global health and the fulfilment of human rights in the 21st century. As the planet warms, weather patterns shift and extreme events such as heatwaves, storms, and flooding become more frequent and severe. These environmental changes have profound implications for human well-being, affecting not only physical health through disease and injury but also mental health, access to basic necessities, and the very fabric of societies. Climate change disrupts the balance of ecosystems and community structures upon which human rights are built – from the right to health, food, and water to securing a livelihood and sustaining cultural practices.
How Climate Change Affects Health Globally
Climate change affects health globally through direct and indirect pathways. Direct impacts include increased morbidity and mortality from extreme weather events like heatwaves, which cause heat-related illnesses, and from storms and floods that result in traumatic injuries, drownings, and mental health issues. Indirect effects are vast, including:
- Altered patterns of infectious diseases, as warmer temperatures and changing rainfall patterns expand the habitats of vectors like mosquitoes, leading to a broader distribution and increased incidence of vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fever.
- Food security threats, as changing climate conditions affect crop yields, reducing both the quantity and quality of food available, and potentially leading to malnutrition and starvation.
- Water scarcity and contamination, which are exacerbated by droughts and floods, affecting drinking water supplies and increasing the risk of waterborne diseases.
- Forced migration and displacement, as people move away from areas that have become uninhabitable due to sea-level rise or desertification, which in turn leads to crowding in urban areas and can strain public health systems.
- Societal stress, as changes in environmental conditions can heighten resource competition, potentially leading to conflict and violence.
The health effects of climate change do not impact all populations equally. Vulnerable groups, including children, the elderly, and low-income communities, tend to suffer disproportionately due to factors such as existing health disparities, less capacity to adapt, and greater reliance on climate-sensitive resources. Regions with weaker health infrastructure are less able to cope with and recover from climate-related health impacts.
For instance, the 2003 European heatwave led to over 70,000 excess deaths, illustrating the potential scale of health impacts from a single extreme climate event. The profound effects on health were accompanied by significant social and economic costs, including impacts on human rights such as the right to life, health, and adequate housing.
Delving deeper, climate change can alter the geographic range and seasonal activity of allergy-producing plants and pollen, exacerbating respiratory conditions such as asthma and allergic rhinitis. This adds an additional layer to the indirect health effects of climate change, demonstrating that even less visible impacts can significantly affect public health.
Policy Responses to Climate-Related Health and Human Rights Issues
Policy responses to climate-related health and human rights issues are critical to mitigate the impacts of climate change and adapt to its effects. These responses can be grouped into mitigation strategies, which aim to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and limit global warming, and adaptation strategies, which aim to reduce the vulnerability of communities to the adverse effects of climate change.
Mitigation strategies advocate for shifts towards renewable energy sources, promotion of energy efficiency, and development of sustainable transport and city planning. They also include protecting and enhancing natural carbon sinks such as forests and oceans.
Adaptation strategies involve strengthening health systems, enhancing surveillance and early warning systems for climate-sensitive health risks, building climate-resilient infrastructure, and integrating climate considerations into public health planning. Developing educational programs to raise awareness and understanding of the health impacts of climate change is also a key element.
Policies at international, national, and local levels must incorporate a human rights perspective, ensuring that all actions respect, protect, and fulfil the rights of the most vulnerable populations. This approach means engaging with affected communities, ensuring participation in decision-making processes, and tackling underlying inequalities that exacerbate the health risks associated with climate change.
International agreements, such as the Paris Agreement under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), set out commitments to limit global temperature increases and provide frameworks for national action plans. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) offer a roadmap for addressing climate change and its impacts on health and rights, particularly through SDG 13 (Climate Action) and SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being).
In policy development, consider the principle of 'equity' — some countries are disproportionately responsible for historical greenhouse gas emissions, while others, often those that have contributed least, are more adversely affected by climate change.
The establishment of the Green Climate Fund is an example of an international policy response intended to assist developing countries in adaptation and mitigation practices to counter climate change; this is a practical step towards addressing the global inequalities exacerbated by the changing climate.
Exploring further, policy-making must also consider the effects of climate change-related policies on health and human rights. For instance, while promoting biofuels as an alternative energy source reduces fossil fuel dependence, it can also lead to competition for land and water resources, influencing the right to food. Therefore, comprehensive policy responses must be multi-sectoral and account for potential trade-offs and unintended consequences.
Geographical Disparities in Health and Human Rights
Geographical disparities in health and human rights refer to the uneven distribution of health outcomes and the accessibility of human rights across different regions. These disparities can be seen both within countries and on a global scale, with variances largely driven by a combination of socio-economic, environmental, and political factors. Understanding these disparities is crucial for formulating effective policies aimed at achieving equity in health and the full realisation of human rights for all.
Comparing Health and Human Rights Across Different Regions
To fully grasp the extent of geographical disparities in health and human rights, one must delve into comparing different regions. This comparison often involves examining indicators such as life expectancy, maternal and child mortality, the prevalence of diseases, and access to healthcare. At the same time, factors such as legal protections, social freedoms, and the implementation of human rights treaties play significant roles in shaping regional human rights landscapes.
In higher-income countries, health systems tend to be more robust with greater resources, leading to better health outcomes. In contrast, low- and middle-income countries often face challenges like underfunded health services, shortages of healthcare professionals, and limited access to essential medicines. Furthermore, regions marred by political instability and conflict frequently suffer from gross human rights violations and weakened healthcare infrastructure.
Health indicators comparison table:
| Region | Life Expectancy | Maternal Mortality (per 100,000 live births) | Access to Clean Water (%) |
| Sub-Saharan Africa | 61 years | 510 | 68% |
| Eastern Mediterranean | 68 years | 166 | 85% |
| Western Europe | 82 years | 9 | >99% |
These discrepancies may be further complicated by global issues such as climate change, which disproportionately affects poorer regions by undermining agricultural production and increasing the frequency of natural disasters, as well as pandemics, which can overwhelm health systems and heighten existing inequities.
Human rights can often serve as both a goal and a tool to improve health outcomes. Regions that promote and protect human rights tend to create environments where access to healthcare is more equitable, and overall well-being is supported. Conversely, areas with widespread rights abuses can experience poor health outcomes due to factors such as censorship of health information, discrimination, and violence.
When comparing regions like Scandinavia and Sub-Saharan Africa, one finds stark contrasts not only in health outcomes but also in the understanding and implementation of human rights. Scandinavia often ranks high in human development indices, with strong protections for social rights, including health. In contrast, in Sub-Saharan Africa, even though human rights are enshrined in many constitutions, practical implementation falls short, compounded by economic constraints and less robust legal systems.
These disparities are not simply theoretical; they manifest in tangible outcomes. HIV/AIDS, for example, has a disproportionate impact in regions with weaker health infrastructures and human rights protections, especially Sub-Saharan Africa, which has the highest prevalence of the disease globally, illustrating how health disparities can be exacerbated by, or even stem from, human rights issues.
Consider how the protection of health workers' rights, including their right to a safe work environment, impacts the health service delivery and overall public health outcomes across different regions.
Addressing Geographical Inequalities in Health and Human Rights
Addressing geographical inequalities in health and human rights is a multifaceted challenge that requires a strategic and integrated approach. Efforts to bridge these disparities must be grounded in strong health systems, equitable resource distribution, and the promotion of human rights.
Efficient and accessible healthcare services are fundamental to improving health outcomes. This involves expanding infrastructure, increasing investment in healthcare workforce training and retention, and ensuring the availability of essential medicines and technologies. Equally important is strengthening health system governance to ensure that services are delivered equitably and accountably.
Particular attention must be given to addressing social determinants of health, such as education, housing, and employment. These factors significantly influence an individual's ability to lead a healthy life and are interwoven with the realisation of human rights. For instance, education not only provides knowledge on health-promoting behaviours but also empowers individuals to demand and exercise their rights.
Promotion and protection of human rights form another cornerstone of addressing disparities. Rights-based approaches to health emphasise participation, non-discrimination, accountability, and transparency. They place individuals and communities at the centre of health interventions, enabling them to be active participants in shaping the policies that affect their lives.
A quick checklist for addressing inequalities could include:
- Assessing health needs and human rights concerns at the local level
- Developing and monitoring equitable health policies
- Embedding human rights into legal frameworks
- Promoting the participation of marginalised groups in decision-making
- Improving access to health-related education and information
- Strengthening community health systems
- Guaranteeing the safety and rights of health workers
- Fostering international collaboration and support for building health and rights capacity
Global and regional initiatives also play a significant role in bridging health disparities. Cooperation through international bodies such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and strategic partnerships for the transfer of knowledge and resources can significantly impact combating inequalities. Funding mechanisms aligned with human rights, such as the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, have demonstrated success in improving health outcomes in disadvantaged regions.
To illustrate, the 'Health in All Policies' approach exemplifies a comprehensive effort to integrate considerations of health, well-being, and equity into all areas of policy-making across different sectors and levels of government. This kind of cross-sectoral collaboration recognises that health and human rights are interconnected with broader social and economic policies. It facilitates a holistic view of how disparate elements such as transportation, urban planning, education, and agriculture can all have profound effects on health and human rights.
Additionally, utilising technology, such as mobile health (mHealth) initiatives, can enhance the resilience of health systems, particularly in remote areas. These technologies enable the extension of services to traditionally underserved communities, offering innovative solutions to longstanding access issues.
Mental Health and Human Rights
Mental health is increasingly recognised as a critical aspect of human rights. The notion that every individual has the right to the highest attainable standard of mental health is becoming a pivotal element of global health discussions. Despite progress in awareness, mental health still faces numerous challenges, including stigma, underfunding, and a lack of understanding about its fundamental role in human rights legislation and advocacy.
Understanding Mental Health as a Human Right
Mental health as a human right implies that every person has the right to mental well-being, necessitating the availability, access, and quality of mental health care services. It also encompasses the conditions that enable individuals to maintain their mental health, such as a stable environment, social support, and freedom from abuse and discrimination. Under international human rights law, particularly in documents like the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the right to health includes mental health.
This right is underpinned by principles of non-discrimination, accessibility, acceptability, quality and the right to the enjoyment of a variety of facilities, goods, services, and conditions necessary for its realisation. Prioritising mental health within the human rights framework entails tackling social determinants such as poverty, social exclusion, and inequality that are linked to mental health issues. The World Health Organization (WHO) emphasises that mental well-being is not merely the absence of mental disorders but includes the ability to cope with life's stresses, work productively, and contribute to one's community.
Ensuring mental health as a human right also means advocating for policies that protect individuals with mental health conditions from human rights abuses, such as involuntary confinement, inhumane treatment, and denial of basic freedoms and dignity. It requires a comprehensive approach, involving the collaboration of health systems, social services, the justice system, and the wider community.
Legislative frameworks play a crucial role in safeguarding mental health rights. Laws should guarantee the rights of persons with mental health conditions, provide for support services, and outline clear, protective measures against discrimination and abuse. Countries should participate in global agreements, like the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), which underscores the importance of mental health rights and promotes their realisation on an equal basis with others.
Understanding mental health as a human right also involves addressing barriers to mental health care. This includes stigma, the lack of mental health awareness and education, inadequate funding, insufficient mental health services, and the training of healthcare providers to offer culturally appropriate care. It means implementing strategies that promote social inclusion, community resilience, and the empowerment of individuals to seek help and support for mental health issues.
The United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals, specifically Goal 3, also underscore the global commitment to ensuring healthy lives which necessarily includes mental health.
Challenges in Protecting Mental Health Rights Globally
Protecting mental health rights on a global scale is beset with challenges. Social stigma, cultural barriers, inadequate funding, and a lack of comprehensive legal frameworks are just some of the hurdles that impede the realisation of mental health as a human right. These challenges create disparities in the quality and accessibility of mental health services around the world. For many, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, mental health services are scarce, under-resourced, and often not integrated into primary health care.
Stigma remains one of the most pervasive challenges, leading to social exclusion and discrimination. It is not uncommon for individuals with mental health conditions to be marginalised, denied opportunities for employment and education, and to face abuse and human rights violations. In some contexts, mental health issues are misinterpreted as personal weaknesses or moral failings, rather than recognised as health conditions that require medical and social support.
Limited financial resources compound this issue, as mental health often receives a small fraction of national health budgets, resulting in a lack of services, professionals, and support systems. Inadequate investment in mental health also reflects a lack of prioritisation by policymakers, which is further aggravated by a limited understanding of the long-term social and economic costs of untreated mental health conditions.
The training of health professionals is another significant challenge. There is a global disparity in the distribution of mental health professionals, with stark differences between urban and rural areas, and between high-income and low-income regions. Even where professionals are available, they may lack the necessary training to provide culturally sensitive care that respects patients' rights and supports their recovery.
Internationally, while there are frameworks like the CRPD and the World Health Organization's Mental Health Action Plan, their implementation is inconsistent. Many countries have not fully incorporated international standards into their national legislation, leading to a wide variation in how mental health rights are protected and promoted.
Furthermore, in crises such as conflicts or natural disasters, mental health needs often escalate while services become even less available. Vulnerable populations, including refugees and internally displaced persons, experience significant mental health challenges but have limited access to services.
Concerns about patient rights, particularly regarding treatment decisions and the overuse of involuntary treatments and confinement, are also widespread. There is a need for international standards to be adopted into domestic law and practice, ensuring that mental health care respects the autonomy and dignity of individuals.
An example that highlights the complexity of protecting mental health rights is the widespread use of involuntary detention for people with mental health conditions. In many cases, this contradicts international human rights standards and can lead to further discrimination and abuse, underscoring the importance of alternative, rights-based approaches to treatment and care.
Digging deeper into the socio-economic aspects, the social determinants of mental health such as housing, employment, and income security are often overlooked in policy-making. Yet, these factors have a profound effect on mental well-being. Addressing such determinants requires a multi-sectoral approach, involving not only the health sector but also education, housing, and social welfare, among others. Ensuring social protection, anti-discriminatory practices, and empowering communities can lead to significant improvements in both mental health outcomes and the observance of human rights.
To illustrate this, one could consider the case of 'Housing First' models, where providing stable, unconditional housing to people with chronic mental health issues has been shown to improve not just their mental health outcomes but also their human rights situation by promoting autonomy, stability, and community integration.
Health And Human Rights - Key takeaways
- Health and Human Rights Definition: Health and Human Rights are a globally recognised concept that ties together health practices with legal, ethical, and moral dimensions of human rights, acknowledging health as a fundamental human right including determinants like food, housing, and clean environments.
- Relationship Between Health and Human Rights: There is a bidirectional relationship where the realisation of the highest standard of health is essential for the enjoyment of all human rights, and the presence of human rights advances physical, mental, and social well-being, guided by principles of non-discrimination, participation, and accountability.
- Global Health and Human Rights: These concepts are interconnected; global health improvement aligns with respecting, protecting, and fulfilling human rights. Challenges include disparities in resources, social inequities, legal framework differences, and the impact of globalisation and climate change on health inequalities.
- Impact of Climate Change on Health and Human Rights: Climate change is a significant threat to global health and human rights, affecting physical and mental health, access to necessities, and societal structures. Policy responses must balance mitigation and adaptation strategies with a human rights perspective.
- Geographical Disparities in Health and Human Rights: Disparities are driven by socio-economic, environmental, and political factors, influencing the uneven distribution of health outcomes and accessibility to human rights. Strategies to address these inequalities include improving healthcare services, addressing social determinants of health, and promoting human rights.
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