Beliefs in Society

The word 'religion' is familiar to us all. But what do we mean when we use it?

The discipline of sociology of religion is considering different beliefs in society.

• We will look at beliefs in society in sociology.
• Then we will look at science as a belief system and beliefs in society: ideology.
• We will go through sociological theories of religion. We will mention beliefs in society: functionalism, beliefs in society: Marxism and beliefs in society: feminism.
• We will discuss religion and social change.
• Finally, we will consider beliefs in society: globalisation and beliefs in society: fundamentalism.

Beliefs in society in sociology

To kick off this topic, we will first look at the definition of religion.

There are three sociological approaches to defining religion.

Substantive

Substantive definitions focus on the content of religious beliefs. For example, Max Weber viewed religion as a belief in a supernatural or higher power that cannot be explained by science.

Functional

Functional approaches define religion in terms of the social or psychological functions it performs for individuals and society. Émile Durkheim described religion according to the shared social bonds it creates between members.

Social constructionist

These approaches aim to understand how a set of beliefs comes to exist and is adopted by individuals.

Science as a belief system

Science differs from religion because it is an open belief system based on direct observation rather than faith.

Unlike religion, science is open to scrutiny and evolves as new knowledge is gained. This process is known as falsification: scientists attempt to disprove theories, and then pursue proven explanations based on empirical evidence.

Fig. 1 - Science is an open belief system based on direct observation and experiment rather than faith.

Beliefs in society: ideology

Often, ‘ideology’ is referred to in political terms. Socialism, nationalism and liberalism are examples of ideologies that represent general political beliefs. Ideology can also refer to a set of dominant or official beliefs within a political system, such as Nazism in Hitler’s Germany, or communism in the USSR.

Ideology has also taken on meanings within sociology, such as a set of beliefs that are used to justify the position of certain groups in society, or as self-sustaining belief systems that are irrational and closed to criticism.

Ideology is similar to religion from the functionalist perspective, as it provides a lens or set of beliefs through which certain groups view the world.

Sociological theories of religion

Theorists explain the nature of religion and its relationship to society in different ways. Exploring a variety of perspectives and sociological theories of religion helps to evaluate the role of religion within society.

Beliefs in society: functionalism

• While functionalism views religion as a unifying force that strengthens value consensus within societies, Marxists see religion as part of a class-divided society.
• Karl Marx argued that religion solidifies the existing class structure by helping individuals within a society cope with events that can threaten that structure.
• According to him, religion is an ideological weapon of the ruling class that misleads the working class in a manner similar to the education system and the media. An ‘opium of the people’, religion promises rewards in the afterlife in exchange for suffering now.

Beliefs in society: feminism

• The feminist perspective views religion as serving male interests with beliefs that justify and reinforce inequalities. This is achieved through the assignment of subordinate roles to women in sacred texts, and restrictions in religious laws that afford women fewer rights.
• Feminists such as Nawal El Sadaawi argue that religion is not the direct cause of women’s exploitation, but that patriarchal society has allowed men to reinterpret religious beliefs to benefit themselves. One example is the replacement of various goddesses and priestesses with male prophets.
• During the last few centuries, men’s participation in religion has decreased, which has allowed churches to gradually become more feminised. As a result, several churches have increased emphasis on topics like caring and relationships. Linda Woodhead argues that these trends have made religion more attractive to women.

Religion and social change

Some sociological perspectives view religion as a force for social change, while others see it as key to maintaining the status quo.

A conservative force

Religion is often seen as a conservative force, as it upholds traditional beliefs about how society ought to be. It also functions to maintain things the way that they already are. The view of religion as a force that preserves the status quo is shared by Marxists, feminists, and functionalists. While each perspective defines the role of religion differently, all view religion as something that aids in stabilising society.

Functionalists see religion as promoting social solidarity through consensus building, as religion reduces the likelihood that individuals will pursue their own self-interest at the expense of others. Marxists and feminists see religion as an ideological tool that supports the existing order of society and stabilises the interests of powerful groups.

An agent for change

From the perspective of Max Weber, William Bainbridge, and Rodney Stark, religion is more than a conservative force. It can cause social change. Weber argues that the social norms developed by Protestant faiths such as Calvinism contributed to the framework for modern capitalism; in Calvinism, individual wealth was viewed as God’s reward for hard work.

Steve Bruce believes that the Civil Rights movement in the USA was inspired by religion. The church provided a meeting place and sanctuary from white violence, while religious hymns and beliefs in religious tenets united a group of people and enabled them to overcome oppression.

Religious organisations

Religious organisations include churches, denominations, sects, cults, new age movements, and new religious movements.

Churches, denominations, sects, and cults

• Churches can span the globe and exhibit a hierarchical structure with professional clergy. The Roman Catholic Church is an example of this.

• Denominations are smaller than churches and have a professional clergy, but typically rely on members for active involvement. Pentecostalism is an example.

• Sects are often led by an individual who claims to be chosen by a higher power and commonly demand total dedication from members, e.g. ISIS.

• Cults have small memberships, aim to attract those seeking spiritual fulfilment, and solicit specific actions from members, e.g. Scientology.

• New age movements cover a range of beliefs, and most lack a hierarchical structure, focusing instead on self-spirituality, e.g. Reiki.

• The number of New Religious Movements (NRMs) has skyrocketed since the 1960s. Many are classified as sects and cults, but Roy Wallis also created a framework that distinguishes NRMs based on the nature of their beliefs as world-affirming, world-accommodating, and world-rejecting.

Religion and social groups

Religion participation varies significantly across gender, ethnicity, age, and social class.

• Women are more likely to express interest in religion, as they are more likely to experience poverty and marginalisation.

• Ethnic minorities make up a greater representation of churchgoers, due to religion’s role in cultural defence and cultural transition.

• The current elderly generation tends to use religion as a source of security, while younger individuals find religious teachings less relatable to their lives.

• Religious participation is highest among deprived classes. It helps them cope with poverty and oppression.

Contemporary religion and secularisation

According to Bruce, secularisation manifests within institutions, in the social standing of religious roles, and in the extent to which people conduct their lives in a way informed by religious beliefs.

Explanations of secularisation

Let's look at a few ways in which sociologists have explained the growth of secularisation.

Rationalisation

Weber attributes secularisation to the processes of rationalisation. The Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, in which the Protestants first split from the Roman Catholic Church, brought about a new rational world-view. God created the world but then left it to run according to its own laws of nature.

Similarly, the Enlightenment of the eighteenth century inspired individuals to seek more rational explanations for phenomena, rather than citing divine and supernatural causes.

Diversity

According to Peter Berger, the decline of religion is driven by the increased diversity of religious organisations and interpretations of the faith. A shift in western culture away from religious duty and submission to authority, towards exploring individual interpretations of spirituality, has caused traditional religions to decline.

Secularisation in the UK and USA

According to a British Social Attitudes survey conducted in 2017, the proportion of the British population who describe themselves as having 'no religion' was 53 percent, the highest ever recorded so far. One reason for this is the increased liberalisation around social issues such as same-sex relationships and abortion.

Religiosity in the USA has also followed a trend of long-term decline, but the diversity of Christian denominations in the USA means that some churches are more successful compared to others.

Bruce explains secularisation in the USA as happening from within. Churches themselves have become less religious, as individual practitioners transitioned away from seeking salvation and glorifying God, to using religion as a form of personal therapy.

Beliefs in society: globalisation

Globalisation has allowed individuals to express religious beliefs and practice faith separate from national identity. It has also accelerated the spread of certain religious organisations.

This can be seen in the spread of Pentecostalism across the developing world. According to Berger, Pentecostalism appeals to poorer individuals, supports voluntary membership, and incorporates local beliefs in its teachings.

As globalisation exposes individuals to different religions, it can undermine the authority of belief systems that claim to be the one true faith.

Economic globalisation also increases rationalisation, which can undermine the overall significance of religion within a society. One exception is the case of Hinduism in India. Many Indians believe that Hindu values have stimulated the Indian economy and led to success in the global market.

Fig. 2 - Global religions and belief systems.

Beliefs in society: fundamentalism