Social Relationships

“Man is by nature a social animal; an individual who is unsocial naturally and not accidentally is either beneath our notice or more than human. Society is something that precedes the individual.”¹

The above declaration was made by Aristotle, the legendary Ancient Greek philosopher who shaped much of our understanding of humanity, logic, and science. While the study of society and social relations has become incredibly advanced and specialized since Aristotle's time, his claim that humans are social animals has remained foundational.

Sociology is interested in our social relationships - with ourselves, the people we are surrounded by, and the groups and institutions we encounter throughout life. We will look at an overview of some major topics within this, including:

• Social relationships
• Socialization
• The social self
• Social groups and organizations
• Deviance and social control

Definition of Social Relationships

Let's first consider a definition of social relationships.

Now that we have clarified what we mean by social relationships, let's dive into the major themes surrounding social relationships.

Importance of Social Relationships: Socialization

How much of an individual's personality is influenced by social rather than biological factors? What aspects of socialization are carried over into adulthood? Who are the most potent agents of socialization?

Studies of socialization aim to address these questions, in studying the importance of social relationships in a person's development. To understand this, let's look at a definition of socialization.

It is important to study socialization because it influences a society's prevailing cultural norms and molds the perceptions we have of ourselves.

Let's now briefly examine some of the major topics within the study of socialization.

Socialization across the Life Course

The process of socialization begins during infancy and continues throughout life. When taking a life course approach, sociologists and other social scientists closely examine socioeconomic factors like gender and poverty that shape people's lives from birth to death.

Some societies use formal rites of passage to identify different developmental phases of life. These are different in each society.

The Nature vs. Nurture Debate

A classic debate concerning socialization is the idea of nature vs. nurture.

According to some experts, the relationships and nurturing we experience in our environment shape our 'selves' - we are not restricted by our biology. Others contend that heredity, i.e. genetics, alone determines who we are. This theory argues that our personalities, interests, and skills are predetermined before birth; therefore, nature shapes who we are.

Agents of Socialization

A person's socialization is greatly influenced by a variety of social institutions. Summaries of these are as follows:

• The family: parents are crucial in socializing children to adopt the dominant gender roles in society.
• Schools: in the United States, schools are explicitly mandated to socialize people—particularly children - into the norms and values of our culture. This obligation is similar to that of the family.
• Peer groups: for teenagers, peer groups play a significant role in socialization as the role of the family reduces. At this stage, gender differences also arise.
• The workplace: young people are first socialized in the norms of employment when they get their first part-time jobs in school. As they grow older, work full-time, and switch jobs throughout their lives, socialization in the workplace continues in different forms.
• Media and technology: mass media and technology play increasingly larger roles as agents of socialization in contemporary society.
• Religion and the state: by controlling the life course and shaping our ideas of what is suitable behavior at different ages, religion and the state influence the socialization process.
• Environment: the type of physical environment a child is raised in, including the neighborhood they live in and the daycare they may go to, can also influence their behavior and bonds with others.
• Culture: socialization differs according to the culture and customs of the individual and their community.

Fig. 1 - The family, particularly the parents, plays an imperative role in socializing children into gender roles.

Theoretical Perspectives of Socialization

Let's look at what different sociological theories have to say regarding socialization:

• According to the functionalist perspective, socialization and social institutions are crucial for preserving social cohesion and stability.

• Conflict theory, based on Marxism, emphasizes how socialization processes uphold capitalism and the social class system.

• Feminists contend that socialization-imposed gender roles and expectations disadvantage women for the benefit of men.

• Symbolic interactionism argues that socialization is a process in which individuals in society interact with one another through language and imitation to influence others to adopt similar behaviors.

Types of Social Relationships: The Social Self

There are many types of social relationships, but one of the most important is with oneself - the social self.

Sociologists understand that when we engage in social interactions, our sense of self, or the "self," develops. A unique identity that distinguishes us from others, the "self" is not fixed - rather, it develops and changes throughout different phases of our lives.

Let's look at theories of self-development and some specific concepts within them - generalized other, I and me, and social identity.

Theories of Self-Development

The seminal works of Cooley, Mead, and Goffman have shaped theories on self and self-development:

• Charles Horton Cooley originated the idea that we develop our sense of self through interactions with others around the beginning of the 20th century. He referred to this idea as the "looking-glass self."
• George Herbert Mead postulated that there are three individual stages of development and that as an individual matures, their "self" starts to reflect their concerns about how they will be perceived by others, including significant and generalized others.
• Erving Goffman demonstrated how we create our "selves" through the impressions we convey to others through our daily actions, creating the concepts of impression management, face-work, and the dramaturgical approach.

Sociological vs. Psychological Theories of Development

Before the above sociological theories of development came into being, psychologists theorized about the creation of the 'self':

• According to Sigmund Freud (1905), our personality development is based on the id (primitive, self-centered mind), the superego (moral conscience), and the ego, which develops as a counterbalance between the id, the superego, and societal expectations.

• Lawrence Kohlberg (1981) theorized four stages children go through while developing morality: moral, pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional.

• Jean Piaget (1954) argued that the negotiation between the world as it is experienced in our minds and the world as it is experienced socially leads to the development of the self.

Generalized Other and I & Me

Mead refers to the attitudes, opinions, and expectations of society that a child considers in their behavior and actions as the generalized other.

Additionally, Mead differentiates between "me" and "I", both of which make up the self. The "me" is the individual's social self, based on internalized behaviors and expectations learned from society. The "I", on the other hand, stands for the individual's reaction to their social self. The concepts of "me" and "I" serve to balance out the self.

Social Identity

As we have mentioned, the "self" is also shaped by society's perceptions of us and the learned expectations and behaviors we obtain from it - our social identity. In the process of socialization, families and other institutions shape children's social identities by teaching them norms and behaviors based on their gender, race/ethnicity, nationality, etc.

Social Statuses and Roles

Sociologists differentiate between two social categories people occupy in society: social statuses and roles.

Roles are behavioral patterns that we can all identify as being indicative of a person's social status. Status is a phrase used to refer to the responsibilities and privileges associated with a person's role and position in society.

Examples of Social Relationships: Social Groups and Organizations

We will look at examples of social relationships - different types of groups, the importance of group size and structure, and formal organizations in society.

Have you ever been in a situation where a new person enters your friend group, and everything seems to change? Or, have you felt frustrated at having to contact many people in a large company or organization to get what you need?

These are both parts of the sociological study of social groups and organizations.

Types of Social Groups

There are several varieties of social groups in society.

• The groups we find ourselves identifying with most strongly, and which play the biggest roles in socialization, are primary groups. Secondary groups tend to be less personal and more formal.
• In-groups and out-groups are based on our membership - those we are part of are our in-groups, while any outsiders are out-groups.
• Reference groups establish and uphold codes of conduct and act as a standard by which individuals judge both themselves and others.

Fig. 2 - There are several different types of groups in society.

Group Size and Structure

The size and structure of groups matter because even in the smaller ranges, the number of members can fundamentally alter the dynamics and structure of the group. This is because the position of both the leaders and non-leader members of a group can change as group size changes.

The phrase "small group" refers to a group that is intimate enough for everyone to converse or at the very least get to know one another. A dyad, which has two members, is the simplest type of group. Coalitions can arise as a result of the increased interaction that triads and bigger groups enable.

Group Conformity

Sociologists are fascinated by how we behave and interact with others in a group when we are trying to conform. Group conformity refers to the degree to which a person complies with social standards or expectations in groups.

Formal Organizations

Large formal organizations have grown in size and influence as societies have become more complex.

When faced with pressure from others to do something, especially something you would not normally do, how would you react? In these situations, people can generally respond in two ways: deviance or conformity.

Some of the biggest factors affecting social relationships are revealed when we study crime, deviance, and social control in society.

Let's study deviance, social control, theoretical perspectives on these phenomena, and how they relate to criminal activity and the law.

What is Deviance?

While some forms of deviance are socially stigmatized, others are more or less tolerated.

What is Social Control?

Social control is exercised on everyone and through all institutions of society, from the family to educational institutions to the government.

Theoretical Perspectives on Deviance and Social Control

Sociologists of different theoretical fields have different views on deviance and social control. For instance:

• From a functionalist perspective, deviance and its effects aid in defining the boundaries of acceptable behavior in society.

• According to some interactionists, cultural transmission, meaning interactions with others, is how people learn deviant and/or criminal behavior. They argue that exposure to views that are supportive of criminality causes deviance (differential association). Others believe that a lack of or dysfunction in social structures and groups such as families, schools, governments, etc. are to blame (social disorganization theory).

• Labeling theory points out that the label of "deviant" is not always fairly applied.

• Laws and penalties are a reflection of the interests of the powerful, according to conflict theory.

• The feminist viewpoint stresses that cultural norms and unequal socioeconomic relationships contribute to gender differences in crime and deviance.

Crime and the Law

Unlike deviance, crime is a violation of laws and formal social norms regulated by the state. While deviance does not always warrant state punishment, a crime usually results in formal penalties.

Sociologists differentiate between a number of different crimes:

• Victimless crimes, which refer to transactions of illegal goods and services
• Professional crime, carried out by experienced and skilled career criminals
• Organized crime, conducted by groups involved with criminal/illegal operations and industries
• White-collar crime, which is carried out in the course of business, frequently by wealthy, "respectable" individuals
• Transnational crime, which occurs in multiple countries or regions

Crime Statistics

Statistics on crime are highly contested because crime statistics are not always accurate - many crimes are not reported - and crime is not always prosecuted.

The US Criminal Justice System

The criminal justice system is a body established to uphold the law. The police, the courts, and the correctional system are the three divisions of the criminal justice system in the United States.

Public Perception of Crime

The public's ideas of crime rates are not always accurate - in fact, people tend to assume crime is much more prevalent/common than it actually is. This is influenced by sensationalized news coverage of crimes as well as the many crime shows on TV.

Fig. 3 - Sociologists recognize a variety of different crimes.