Language is a uniquely human phenomenon. Animals communicate, but they don't do it with 'language'. One of the most intriguing questions in the study of language is how it is acquired by children. Are babies born with an innate, or built-in, ability to acquire language? Is language acquisition stimulated by interaction with others (parents, carers, and siblings)? What would happen if a child was deprived of communication, left isolated during the optimal time for language acquisition (roughly the first 10 years of a child's life)? Would the child be able to acquire language after that age?
Disclaimer / Trigger Warning: Some readers may be sensitive to some of the content in this article. This document serves an educational purpose to inform people of important information and uses relevant examples related to language acquisition.
Language Acquisition
In 1970, a 13-year-old girl called Genie was rescued by social services in California. She had been kept locked in a room by her abusive father and neglected from a very early age. She had had no contact with the outside world and was forbidden to speak. When Genie was rescued, she lacked basic language skills and could only recognise her own name and the word 'sorry'. However, she had a strong desire to communicate and could communicate nonverbally (e.g. through hand gestures).
This case fascinated psychologists and linguists, who took Genie's language deprivation as an opportunity to study child language acquisition. The lack of language in her home environment led to the age-old nature vs. nurture debate. Do we acquire language because it is innate or does it develop because of our environment?
What is language?
Language is a communication system, used and understood by a group with a shared history, territory, or both.
Linguists consider language to be a uniquely human ability. Other animals do have communication systems. For example, birds communicate in a series of different sounds for different purposes, such as warning of danger, attracting a mate, and defending territory. However, none of these communication systems appears to be as complex as human language, which has been described as 'the infinite use of a finite resource'.
Language is considered to be unique to humans - Pixabay
Meaning of Language Acquisition
The study of child language acquisition is (you guessed it!) the study of the processes by which children learn a language. At a very young age, children begin to understand, and gradually use, the language spoken by their caregivers.
The study of language acquisition involves three main areas:
- First-language acquisition (your native language i.e. child language acquisition).
- Bilingual language acquisition (learning two native languages).
- Second-language acquisition (learning a foreign language). Fun fact - There's a reason why French lessons were so difficult - babies' brains are much more primed for language learning than our adult brains are!
Definition of Language Acquisition
How exactly would we define language acquisition?
Language acquisition refers to the process of acquiring a language, usually due to immersion (i.e. hearing the language often and in everyday contexts). Most of us acquire our native language just from being around others such as our parents.
Stages of language acquisition
There are four main stages in child language acquisition:
Children first start to recognise and produce sounds eg 'bababa'. They don't yet produce any recognisable words but they are experimenting with their newfound voice!
The one-word stage (9-18 months)
The one-word stage is when babies start to say their first recognisable words, eg using the word 'dog' to describe all fluffy animals.
The two-word stage (18-24 months)
The two-word stage is when children start communicating using two-word phrases. For example, 'dog woof', meaning 'the dog is barking', or 'mummy home', meaning mummy is home.
The multi-word stage (telegraphic stage) (24-30 months)
The multi-word stage is when children start to use longer sentences, more complex sentences. For example, 'mummy and Chloe go school now'.
Theories of language acquisition
Let's take a look at some of the key theories of child language acquisition:
What is Cognitive Theory?
Cognitive theory suggests that children go through stages of language development. Theorist Jean Piaget emphasised that we can only move through the stages of language learning as our brains and cognitive processes develop. In other words, children have to understand certain concepts before they can produce the language to describe these concepts. Theorist Eric Lenneberg argued that there is a critical period between two years old and puberty in which children need to learn language, otherwise, it cannot be learned sufficiently well.
What is Behavioural Theory (Imitation Theory)?
Behavioural theory, often called 'Imitation Theory', suggests that people are a product of their environment. Theorist BF Skinner proposed that children 'imitate' their caregivers and modify their language use through a process called 'operant conditioning'. This is where children are either rewarded for desired behaviour (correct language) or punished for undesired behaviour (mistakes).
What is Nativist Theory and Language Acquisition Device?
Nativist theory, sometimes referred to as the 'innateness theory', was first proposed by Noam Chomsky. It states that children are born with an innate ability to learn language and that they already have a "language acquisition device" (LAD) in their brain (this is a theoretical device; it doesn't really exist!). He argued that certain errors (eg 'I runned') are evidence that children actively 'construct' language rather than just imitating caregivers.
What is Interactionist Theory?
Interactionist theory emphasises the importance of caregivers in child language acquisition. Theorist Jerome Bruner argued that children do have an innate ability to learn language however they require lots of regular interaction with caregivers to achieve full fluency. This linguistic support from caregivers is often called 'scaffolding' or a Language Acquisition Support System (LASS). Caregivers may also use child-directed speech (CDS) that helps a child learn. For example, caregivers will often use a higher pitch, simplified words, and lots of repetitive questioning when talking to a child. These aids are said to enhance communication between the child and caregiver.
What are Halliday's functions of language?
Michael Halliday suggested seven stages that show how the functions of a child's language become more complex with age. In other words, children express themselves better and better as time goes by. These stages include:
- Stage 1- Instrumental Stage (language for basic needs eg food)
- Stage 2- Regulatory Stage (language to influence others eg commands)
- Stage 3- Interactive Stage (language to form relationships eg 'love you')
- Stage 4- Personal Stage (language to express feelings or opinions eg 'me sad')
- Stage 5- Informative Stage (language to communicate information)
- Stage 6- Heuristic Stage (language to learn and explore eg questions)
- Stage 7- Imaginative Stage (language used to imagine things)
How do we apply these theories?
Babies and young children say all kinds of funny things such; 'I runned to school' and 'I swimmed really fast'. These may sound ridiculous to us but these errors suggest that children are learning common English grammar rules. Take the examples' I danced ',' I walked ', and' I learned'- why do these make sense but not 'I runned '?
Theorists who believe that language is innate, such as nativists and interactionists, argue that these errors are virtuous errors. They believe that children build up a set of internal grammar rules and apply them to their own language; for example 'the suffix -ed means past tense'. If there is an error, children will modify their internal rules, learning that 'ran' is correct instead.
Cognitive theorists may argue that the child has not reached the level of cognition required to understand the use of irregular verbs. However, as adults don't say 'runned' we cannot apply the behaviourist theory, which suggests that children imitate carers.
How do we apply these theories to the case of Genie?
In the case of Genie, many different theories were put to the test, especially the critical period hypothesis. Was it possible for Genie to acquire language after 13 years? Which is more important, nature or nurture?
After years of rehabilitation, Genie began to acquire plenty of new words, appearing to go through the one word, the two words, and eventually the three-word stages. Despite this promising development, Genie never managed to apply grammatical rules and use language fluently. This supports Lenneberg's concept of a critical period. Genie had passed the period in which she could fully acquire language.
Due to bringing up the complicated nature of Genie's, further research would be needed before coming to any conclusions. Her abuse and neglect meant that the case was very special as she was deprived of all kinds of cognitive stimulation which could have affected the way in which she learned language.
How do I apply what I've learned in the exam?
In the exam, you are expected to apply the theory that you have learned to a piece of text. You should understand the following:
- Features of child language acquisition such as virtuous errors, overextension / underextension, and overgeneralisation.
- Features of Child-Directed Speech (CDS) such as a high degree of repetition, longer and more frequent pauses, frequent use of the child's name, etc.
- Theories of child language acquisition such as nativism, behaviour, etc.
The question:
It is essential to read the question word by word as you need to answer the question fully to gain as many marks as possible! You are often asked to 'evaluate' a point of view in your exam. For example, you might be asked to evaluate the view that “child-directed speech is essential for a child's language development”.
The word 'evaluate' means that you have to make a critical judgment on the point of view. In other words, you have to argue using evidence to back up your point of view. Your evidence should include examples from the transcript and from other theories you have studied. It is useful to consider both sides of the argument too. Imagine yourself as a movie critic - you analyse the good points and the bad points to make an evaluation of the film.
The transcription key:
At the top of the page, you will find the transcription key. This will help you to understand the features of speech, such as LOUDER SPEECH or stressed syllables. It may be useful to revise this before the exam so that you can get stuck into the question straight away. For example:
Transcription Key
(.) = short pause
(2.0) = longer pause (number of second shown in brackets)
Bold = stressed syllables
CAPITAL LETTERS = louder speech
At the top of the text, you will find the context. For example, the age of the child, who is involved in the conversation, etc. This can be really useful information as we can find out what kind of interaction is taking place between participants and what stage of language acquisition a child is at.
- Features of child language acquisition such as virtuous errors, overextension / underextension, and overgeneralisation.
- Features of Child-Directed Speech (CDS) such as a high degree of repetition, longer and more frequent pauses, frequent use of the child's name, etc.
- Theories of child language acquisition such as nativism, behaviour, etc.
Looking at the context:
At the top of the text, you will find the context. For example, this may state the age of the child, who is involved in the conversation, etc. This can be really useful information as we can find out what kind of interaction is happening between participants and what stage of language acquisition a child is at.
For example, if the child is 13 months old then they would normally be at the one-word stage. We can also study the text to suggest which stage the child is at and give reasons for why we think that, using examples from the text. Children can appear to be in other stages of language development than what is expected eg a child of 13 months may still appear to be at the babbling stage.
It is also useful to look at the significance of any other context that is shown throughout the text. For example, a book to point to pictures or other props can be used to help describe words.
Analysing the text:
Always remember to answer the question. If the question asks us to evaluate then we are looking to consider multiple points of view and come to a conclusion.
Let's take the example "evaluate the importance of Child-Directed Speech":
Child-directed speech (CDS) is a major part of Bruner's interactionist theory. This theory includes the idea of 'scaffolding' and the features of CDS. If we can identify features of CDS in the text then we can use these as examples in our answer. Examples of CDS in the transcript could be things like repetitive questioning, frequent pauses, frequent use of the child's name, and change in voice (stressed syllables and volume). If these attempts at CDS do not get a response from the child then this suggests that CDS may not be completely effective.
We can also use contradicting theories to help us evaluate the importance of CDS. For example,
Another example is Piaget's cognitive theory that suggests that we can only move through the stages of language development as our brains and cognitive processes develop. This theory, therefore, does not support the importance of CDS, instead, it suggests that slower language development is due to slower cognitive development.
- Revise the keywords used in exam questions. This includes: evaluate, analyse, identify etc.
- Look at the text both word for word and as a whole. Label any key features that you find. This will help you to analyse the text with a high level of detail.
- Make sure to include plenty of 'buzz-words' in your answer. These are keywords that you've learned in theory, such as 'telegraphic stage', 'scaffolding', 'overgeneralisation', etc.
- Use examples from the text and other theories to support your argument.
Language Acquisition - Key takeaways
- Language is a communication system in which we express our ideas, thoughts, and feelings through sounds, written symbols, or gestures. Language is a uniquely human trait.
- Child language acquisition is the process by which children acquire language.
- The four stages of language acquisition are babbling, the one-word stage, the two-word stage, and the multi-word stage.
- The main four theories of language acquisition are Behavioural Theory, Cognitive Theory, Nativist Theory, and Interactionist Theory.
- Halliday's 'functions of language' shows how the functions of a child's language become more complex with age.
- It is important to know how to apply these theories to a text.
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